[Reflective Essay] Total Physical Response: A Teaching Method That Requires Teacher’s Totality

TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE: A TEACHING METHOD

THAT REQUIRES TEACHER’S TOTALITY

Retno Damayanti Kusumaningrum

Introduction

            There are many teaching methods that can be used by teachers in order to make the students understanding the materials easily and also create the class to be enjoyable. Total Physical Response (TPR) is one of the English teaching approaches and methods developed by Dr. James J Asher. (Widodo, 2005). It is a language teaching method built around the coordination of speech and action. This method encourages students to pay attention to the teacher since the students need to listen carefully to understand the teacher’s command. Students will respond the teacher with their action and body movement. For instance, when the teacher says “put your hands up!”. Then, the students will put their hands up.  As stated by Asher (2007), learners are not expected to speak while performing actions, which makes TPR stress-free and suitable for teaching beginners, either young learners, teenagers or adults.

            According to Richards and Rodgers, 2006 (as cited in Savić, 2014), the basic principles guiding TPR method are drawn from developmental psychology, the theory of learning, brain research, and humanistic pedagogy. Larsen-Freeman (2000) stated in TPR method, the students’ understanding of the target language should be developed before speaking and spoken language should be emphasized over written language.  It is in line with  Asher that learning a target language should be similar to native language acquisition: in learning a native language, comprehension comes before speaking and a child first responds to commands physically, and only later verbally (Savić, 2014).

            Students can learn through observing actions. In this case, imperative is a powerful linguistic device which teacher can direct students behaviour. Teacher has a role as the director of students behaviour whereas the students act as the imitators. The students will begin to speak when they are ready. It doesn’t matter if students make some errors, teacher should torelate them.  This method applies the theory of learning by doing. Students should not be made to memorize, because language learning is more effective when it is fun. Therefore, the aim of this method is to make a comfortable learning atmosphere which students enjoy their experience in learning to communicate in a foreign language. (Larsen-Freeman 2000)

Reflection

            In the last peer teaching practice, I implemented total physical response as my teaching method.  I taught “parts of body and their verbs” for the 7^th grade of junior high school students.  It focused on the skill of listening and speaking. The objectives of the lesson are students should be able to identify the parts of human body and the verbs that are related with the parts of human body, pronounce the new terms related to the parts of  human body correctly and arrange the sentences that is related with the parts of human body.

            I introduced to my students about the parts of body, such as head, arms, fingers, etc. I pointed the particular parts and the students followed my commands. After that, my students repeat after me. Then, I asked my students to play a game. This game required students’ concentration. The students who didn’t concentrate well will fail in this game and got punished. At the end of the lesson, we sang a song entitled “where is thumbkin” which can be used to learn about parts of body, especially the name of fingers.

            The duration of the teaching practice was not too long. It was exactly 7 minutes. In my opinion,  7 minutes were short enough because in teaching using TPR, teacher and students were doing activities together. It was fun and enjoyable, so we didn’t realize when the time was over. 

            From my last performance, I found that there were some strengths and weaknesses. The first strengths were about voice, eye contact, and gesture. I used a gesture and made an eye contact with the students when I demonstrate the examples. My voice was loud enough to be heard by the whole class. My friends also said that I was cheerful enough even in my daily life I was not as cheerful as when I did the teaching practice. It was good because in teaching young learners, the teacher should be friendly and cheerful in order to encourage the students and make them comfortable to learn.  The second is that about the activities during my lessons. I tried to make a fun learning by playing concentration games. I gave a punishment for the students who failed. The students who failed should come forward and practice the total physical response by following my commands. At the end of the lesson, I asked them to sing a song together. Third, in this performance, I was not as nervous as I did my first peer teaching practice in the previous semester. Probably, it happened because I have done some teaching practices in this semester. It is true that practice makes perfect.

            Besides of the strengths, there were also some weaknesses in my performance. The first thing that I most remember was about time management. I failed to manage the time appropriately. I thought I need two more minutes in my teaching practice because when the time was running short, my students and I were practicing to sing together which belonged to the last activity in my lesson plan. Second, I didn’t bring any visual aids, but there is a reason for it. It was because my lesson was about human body. I  bring my body wherever I am and so do the students. So, at that time I think that doing some activities (i.e wave the hands, stomp the foot) and pointing my own body, such as head, arms, hands, fingers, etc were enough to show the realia. However, I am still thinking about it. I changed my mind. Now, I think that it was not interesting enough. It would have been better if I brought some pictures and show them to my students or using powerpoint slides as the media. Third, I forgot about one of the principles in this method. The founder of this method, Dr. Asher  in his interview (2007) said that  it doesn't need to encourage students to ask for repetition or ask about meaning during TPR exercise, because that results in "brain overload." Students are encouraged to relax, listen to the instructor and do what the instructor does. However, in my teaching performance, I asked my students to repeat my statements. 

Conclusion

            Total physical response can make the class to be more active and enjoyable. It is very appropriate to be implemented in teaching young learners. It is one of teaching method that needs teacher’s totality. Teachers will use a lot of energy when they are teaching using this method. Furthermore, there are some considerations when the teacher decided to use this method. First thing first is about preparation. This method required the teacher to prepare the materials before the lesson. It also better for the teacher to bring the visual aids to make the students more interesting. The second is about the level of the students that will be taught and also the objectives of the lesson. The level of the students will determine the appropriate materials that the teacher prepare. The way of teacher teaches the adult learner sometimes different with the young learner. The objectives of the lesson will guide the teacher in teaching and learning process.

            Finally, I can conclude that I still have many weaknesses in my teaching performance. To improve my teaching skills, I should do many things. I should prepare my lesson plan carefully, including the visual aids. I also need to read more about teaching literacy and find more references when I am going to teach. To be able to manage the time in my teaching class, I have to do trial-teaching-practice and using a stopwatch to manage the time. The important thing is that I should practice more and more.

REFERENCES

Asher, J. J. (2007). After forty years, still a very good idea.  Retrieved on June,      28,2018 from http://tpr-world. com/japan-article. html

Larsen-Freeman, D. (2000). Techniques and principles in language teaching.          Oxford            University.

Savić, V. M. (2014). Total Physical Response (TPR) Activities in Teaching             English to Young Learners. U: A. Ignjatović & Ž. Marković (ur.),          Fizička kultura i moderno društvo,     str, 447-454.

Widodo, H. P. (2005). Teaching Children Using a Total Physical Response (TPR) Method:             Rethinking. Bahasa dan seni, 33(2), 235-238.

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Environment Essay: Solid Waste Management for Sustainable Development in Developing Countries

Solid Waste Management for Sustainable Development

in Developing Countries

Retno Damayanti Kusumaningrum

rdamayantikim@gmail.com

Environmental issue has been becoming the most problematic issue in many countries nowadays. One of those problems is about the solid waste that haven’t managed efficiently, especially in developing countries. The amount of solid waste has increased significantly per year. The data from United Nations Environment Programm states that current global waste generation levels are approximately 1.3billion tonnes per year, and are expected to increase to approximately 2.2 billion tonnes per year by 2025. This represents a significant increase in per capita waste generation rates, from 1.2 to 1.42 kg per person per day in the next fifteen years.  

The composition of global waste depends greatly on the economic development of a country, as well as on its culture, climate, and other factors. Low-income countries have the highest portion of organic waste at around 53%. High-income countries produce a high share of paper (24%), plastics (11%) and other inorganic material, with organic waste's share at only 34%. (Stiehler, 2017). Typically, countries with higher incomes produce more packaging materials and recyclable wastes; lower-income countries have less commercial and industrial activity and therefore lower waste generation rates, more organics and higher water content. (GTZ Spies, 2010)

Solid Waste Challenge in Developing Countries

Comparing to the developed countries, the developing countries face more challenges and limitations of how they manage their waste efficiently. There are various factors that influence the management of waste treatment. First, the lack of human resources. There are a limited number of experts who have enough experience to handle waste efficiently. In addition, the level of public awareness of waste management is still low. On the contrary, the participation and awareness of public is a key element to support the good waste management system. Second, the growth of population that is uncontrolled. The increase of population in a country give an effect to the solid waste management. The more population has grown, the more volume of solid waste will increase. The increasing of solid waste will give a bad impact on the environment if the governments are unable to manage it.   Third, regulations and financial constraints obstruct the management system. The funding allocations do not give a priority to the solid waste management. Besides, the developing countries do not have enough financial support to assist the waste management like what developed countries did, because waste management infrastructure requires high investment to operate. Gunsilus and Whiteman (2010) also stated that Unclear distribution of responsibilities, the inefficiency of public waste management services, non-transparent management processes and poor financing mechanisms are some of the common problems in waste management in developing countries.

Solid Waste Management Should Become A Priority

Waste management is a global as well as a national and a local issue. Waste management plays an important role in the global cleanliness.  When the waste is disposed of properly, the pollution in the air and marine ecosystem can be prevented early. We will get many bad impacts if we disregard the waste disposal.

Solid waste is part of modern daily life in line with the increasing number of people, the rising amount of waste generated per person and also the substances of waste are increasing in complexity.  The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change estimates that solid waste accounted for 3% of global Green House Gas emissions in 2010, mainly due to methane emissions from landfills. It causes the local air pollution and influences the air pollution on earth indirectly. Uncollected solid waste also clogs drains and causes flooding and subsequent spread of waterborne diseases. Not only dangerous for the environment, uncontrolled waste management also give effect on health risk.  The more waste is generated, the bigger its impact will be on the environment and on our health. If hazardous wastes are present in the garbage, contact with critical compounds3 may occur. The exposure to these can cause cancer, birth defects, metabolic problems and failure of some organs.

It is obvious that proper waste management helps to create eco-friendly ambiance, whereas the uncontrolled way of managing waste can cause the damaging environment. The good environment will create the healthier society and support the sustainability of a country.

Waste Management Strategies

Managing solid waste well and affordable is one of the key challenges of the 21st century, and one of the key responsibilities of a city government. Waste management can preserve the environment. We can’t simply burn all waste. It can be dangerous to the environment because it releases toxins, pollutions. It can be harmful for the ozone layer as well. There are some strategies in order to manage waste properly. First, the developing country cities are still experiencing rapid population growth, so one element of an integrated solid waste management solution has to be how to tackle the exponential growth in waste quantities. (Spies, 2010). Second, there should be an addition to funding allocation in order to create better infrastructures for managing solid waste and also clear framework or policies. Third, the waste management should use the proper way that can help to reduce the amount of solid waste and also prevent the environment from the bad effect of disposal.

There are several methods are commonly used for waste disposal. Each method has its own effect on the environment. Landfilling is the least favorable waste treatment method. Waste is buried, and this process is accompanied by negative side-effects such as great atmosphere damage, produce flammable gas like methane, and pose a hydrological threat which could result in pollution of groundwater. The next method is incineration. Incineration is a process by which the organic substances contained in waste are combusted. The process turns waste into ash, flue gas and heat.  It is an expensive waste-disposal method.  Incinerators use three to five times more energy than they recover from waste. Even though attempts are made to clean the by-products from pollutants, incineration generators are great polluters compared to fossil fuel operated generators

According to the United Nation Environment Programme, the priorities of good resource management are expressed by the ‘3Rs’ – reduce, reuse, recycle. Reduce the quantities of waste being generated. It is also important for rapidly growing cities in middle- and low-income countries to bring their waste growth rates under control. Reuse products that can be reused, repaired, refurbished, or remanufactured to have longer useful lives. Recycling is a process by which waste material is converted into reusable objects. Recycle needs materials that can be extracted, recovered and returned to industrial value chains, where they strengthen local, regional and global production. The last, return nutrients to the soil, by composting or digesting organic wastes together with safely managed and treated human excreta. These are sources of key nutrients for the agricultural value chain, and their proper utilization is important to food security and sustainable development. Following this method, it focuses on attempting to repair and reuse products before turning to disposal.

Conclusion

Managing solid waste is important because waste management is related to many fields, such as health, environment, and society. The indicator of good governance can be seen from the services of waste management. However, solid waste management in developing countries is still having low priority area. Therefore, in order to create the effective waste management, the government should be supported by the stakeholders, company, and communities. There should be an understanding and adequate knowledge from the society. The system of reducing, reusing and recycling is still be considered as the most desirable disposal method. The most important thing is that protecting the environment should be participated by everyone all around the world.

REFERENCES

Africa, P. S. (2010). Solid Waste Management in the World’s Cities. Solid Waste Management in the World's Cities: Water and Sanitation in the World's Cities, 26.

GTZ, S. S. (2010). Health Risks Related to Solid Waste Management. Solid Waste Management in the World's Cities: Water and Sanitation in the World's Cities 2010, 14.

Gunsilius, E., Whiteman, A., Scheinberg, A., Wilson, D. C., & Rodic, L. (2010). Waste management and governance: Collaborative approaches for public service delivery. Solid waste management in the world’s cities, 187-190.

Mamen, S.A. (2016). Holistic Waste Management Approach  For Eco Towns. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)

Post, V. (2010). Special Waste Streams. Solid Waste Management in the World's Cities: Water and Sanitation in the World's Cities 2010, 8.

Stiehler, A. (2017). Longer Term Investments Waste Management and Recycling.  CIO WM Research. Accessed on March 25, 2018 at https://www.ubs.com.

Waste in the UK and the World. Accessed on March 23, 2018 at https://www.populationmatters.org/documents/waste_in_the_uk_and_the_world.pdf.

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The Dynamics of Chinese Diaspora in Semarang, Indonesia

The Dynamics of Chinese Diaspora in Semarang, Indonesia

Chinatown in Semarang [ Image source]

China is a country which has a lot of population around the world. According to United Nations Projections, China’s population in 2018 is 1,42 billion.  This country has an estimated population density of 145 people per square kilometer or 375 people per square mile. The great quantities of China’s population have long been a hot issue in China.

There are an estimated 30 million ethnic Chinese living outside China. In the 1990s such expressions as ‘The Chinese Diaspora’ or ‘Global Chinese’ are widely heard, and some countries have at least a small ethnic Chinese population. (Wickberg, E. 1994) According to Boldurukova (2014), the spread of the Chinese all around the world is the result of the process lasted for less than one century. It especially started from the middle of the 19^th century, The Chinese moved to Southeast Asia, Australia, and Northern America to earn more in the new places. The report from the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the State Council People’s Republic of China states that there are approximately 40 million Chinese Diaspora worldwide and more than 7 million  in each of Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand.

The first arrival of Chinese people in Indonesia occurred in the early 15^th century. The came with the mariner Cheng Ho who arrived at the northern coast of Java. After the Dutch expropriated Jakarta (Batavia) in the 17^th century, the Chinese immigrants were increase along the north coast of Java. The Dutch tried to enhance the economy by seeking a large number of Chinese to handle the trading business. The migration did a little success and it gave a good impact on economic.  The Chinese people are widespread around many cities in Indonesia, such as Jakarta, Bandung, Surabaya, Singkawang, and Semarang. Many of them didn’t return to China. They got married and lived sedentary in some cities.

Chinese is a country which has a lot of culture and the people keep holding their belief and culture wherever they are. According to Wickberg (2007), the Immigrant Chinese bring a variety of their own Chinese cultural context of which they have been a part, whether in China or somewhere else. They come to the global city and form groupings or communities. Therefore, as a result of mass immigration of Chinese, there are some Chinatown in some cities in Indonesia. It is known as “pecinan” in Indonesian. The Immigrant of Chinese live in a community. They usually have a family business that is inherited from generation to the next generation.

Semarang is the second of Indonesia’s most Chinese city after Singkawang. Since it has been developed as a port city, it is visited by variety of ethnic group including Chinese and this city become the trading center in Central Java. There is a Chinatown in this city. It has a multifunction, not only a settlement area, but also for economic center around this area. (Widiatuti, Rahmat, Aseani, 2014) Therefore, Semarang has a strong feature of characteristic value of Chinese culture and still can be identified until nowadays.

Acculturation of Chinese and Javanese Culture

Acculturation of Chinese and Javanese culture came as a result of interaction between the immigrants and the local people. Mostly, this social phenomena occured because of the marriage between the chinese immigrant and the indigene. The evidence of this acculturation can be found in many aspects such as names, dialects, architecture, arts, and food. It is emphasized with the study that was conducted by Widodo in 2015 that the combination of the personal and communities name between the name of Chinese people and the name of indigene Javanese of personal shows the existence of this phenomena. It was developed from the perspective of socio-cultural function. The immigrants who settled permanently usually change their names into Indonesian language in order to socialize easily with the indigene Javanese. For instance, the name of Gian Kie was changed into Giantoro. The people around Semarang Chinatown also use the particular dialects that is different with the people outside Semarang. The dialect sounds like Javanese, but it doesn’t look like the original Javanese. In some cases, they often use the Indonesian language rather than Javanese.

Some of buildings and arts in Semarang can be identified as the inheritance of this acculturation. The house of Chinese can be identified by the different shape and different ornament. It also has many functions, not only for living but also for trading. The first floor has a function as a shop and the second floor as the house where they are living. Obviously, the building with the thick Chinese characteristic is “Chinese shrine”, the local people call it as “Klenteng”. There are many China shrine that is scattered around this city. The greatest is Sam Poo Kong China shrine. In the aspect of arts, potehi puppets (Wayang Potehi ) comes as a combination of the Chinese and Javanese culture. This performance can be seen in the Chinese shrine in certain festival as an entertainment. It uses Chinese and Javanese letter. This performance has a function as a tool of unity between Javanese and Chinese.

Food is also being a part of this acculturation. Semarang has a special food that is very well known by people either inside and outside  Semarang. It is called lunpia.  Originally, it is a kind of food that was brought by the Chinese immigrants. Then, it was modified with some Indonesian spicies or flavors. It becomes a very popular food and we can find it easily in Semarang.

The problems of ethnicity

The existence of the Chinese people in Indonesia were facing some problems. One of them is about the stereotype towards the Chinese Immigrant of the new order era ( Soeharto era) until 1998. The Chinese people were descriminated and they couldn’t get a job in the governmental area. There was a distinction between the indigene and the immigrants because the Chinese lived in a group or communities, it seems like the communication didn’t run well. It happened because of the misunderstanding and there is a lack of tolerance. As the time passed by, those problems fade away gradually. Especially after the reformation era, the indigene has been acknowledged on the existence of the Chinese people and also their culture and their beliefs.

            It should be admitted that the Chinese diaspora in gave effect in some aspects, such as economic, social and culture. It also teaches people to live in the diversity.  Living in a diversity with many kinds of culture is wonderful. It helps people learning another culture, another customs, and the acculturation might happen in some ways.

References

 Boldurukova, N. B. (2014). Potency of the Chinese Diaspora. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 143, 576-580.

 ‘China Population 2018’. World Population Review. www.worldpopulationreview.com/countries/china-population/ . Sighted March 13, 2018.

Harani, A. R., & Motic, K. (2017). Pengaruh Fasade Bangunan Terhadap Karakter Visual Kawasan (Studi Kasus: Pecinan Semarang, Malaysia Dan Singapura). Jurnal Pengembangan Kota, 5(1).

Wickberg, E. (2007). Global Chinese migrants and performing Chineseness. Journal of Chinese Overseas, 3(2), 177-193.

Wickberg, E. (1994). The Chinese as overseas migrants. In Migration: The Asian Experience (pp. 12-37). Palgrave Macmillan, London.

Widiastuti, R., Rahmat, A., & Aseani, W. (2015). Conservation and revitalitation in Semarang Chinatown (Klenteng “chinese shrine” as physical characteristic in Semarang Chinatown). Procedia Environmental Sciences, 28, 549-556.

Widodo, S. T. (2015). Interethnic Acculturation in Java: The Names of Chinese People in Lasem–on the North Coast of Java. Asian Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities Vol, 4, 4.

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Kelangsungan Hidup Terumbu Karang di Perairan Indonesia Timur

Kelangsungan Hidup Terumbu Karang

di Perairan Indonesia Timur

Indonesia merupakan negara kepulauan yang memiliki wilayah perairan lebih luas daripada daratan. Wilayah perairan Indonesia ini termasuk kedalam kawasan Coral Triangle, yaitu suatu kawasan perairan dengan tingkat keanekaragaman hayati yang tinggi yang mencakup enam negara di dunia. Maka tak heran apabila pemerintah Indonesia menjadikan kemaritiman sebagai beranda terdepan dan juga pusat pertumbuhan ekonomi nasional. Karena negara ini memiliki banyak sekali ragam biota laut dengan bermacam macam species, menyebabkan wilayah perairan Indonesia begitu dikenal di mancanegara baik untuk sektor pariwisata maupun perikanan. Sebagian besar wilayah perairan yang memiliki banyak sekali keanekaragaman hayati adalah bagian laut Indonesia Timur.

Terumbu karang merupakan salah satu dari sekian banyak keanekaragaman hayati di perairan Indonesia, khususnya di laut Indonesia Timur. Terumbu karang terbentuk dari sekelompok binatang karang yang bersimbiosis dengan sejenis alga dan membentuk suatu ekosistem bawah laut. Ekosistem ini memiliki nilai ekologis yang tinggi sebagai habitat hewan laut dan juga memiliki nilai ekonomis yang tinggi sebagai daya tarik wisata bahari.

Berdasarkan laporan dari World  Resources Institute, Indonesia adalah rumah bagi 16% terumbu karang dunia dan hampir 60 juta penduduk Indonesia mata pencahariannya bergantung pada terumbu karang. Karena letak negara Indonesia yang berada di daerah tropis, sangat memungkinkan bagi berbagai jenis karang untuk hidup dan berkembang biak. Namun, penyebaran terumbu karang tidaklah merata di seluruh perairan Indonesia. Hal ini karena disebabkan beberapa faktor, diantaranya adalah suhu perairan, cahaya matahari, salinitas, sedimentasi, kualitas perairan, arus dan sirkulasi air laut, serta substrat yang stabil (Giyanto, dkk, 2017). Beberapa wilayah di Indonesia yang disebut sebagai surga terumbu karang diantaranya adalah Raja Ampat, Kepulauan Derawan, Kepulauan Nusa Penida, Pulau Komodo, Taman Laut Wakatobi, dan Taman Laut Bunaken. Semakin ke arah barat dan selatan perairan Indonesia, semakin berkurang pula kekayaan jenis karangnya. Perairan Raja Ampat merupakan tempat terbaik yang memiliki lebih dari 500 spesies terumbu karang. Artinya, 75% dari total semua jenis karang di dunia berada di Raja Ampat.  Sehingga menyebabkan wilayah ini kaya akan keanekaragaman hayati dengan berbagai jenis ikan dan hewan laut lainnya.

Terumbu karang di Wakatobi (Sumber)

Namun, bagaimana dengan  kondisi terumbu karang dalam beberapa tahun terakhir? Ternyata, sebuah penelitian yang menyebutkan bahwa terumbu karang di Indonesia saat ini statusnya cukup memprihatinkan. Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia (LIPI) menjelaskan bahwa status terumbu karang Indonesia tahun 2017 pada wilayah  bagian Indonesia Timur menghasilkan prosentase sebagai berikut, 6,39% sangat baik, 23,4% baik, 35,6% kondisi sedang, dan 35% kondisi buruk.

Tentu saja keberadaan terumbu karang bukanlah tanpa ancaman. Perubahan terumbu karang dari waktu ke waktu sifatnya sangat dinamis. Hal ini dipengaruhi oleh kondisi lingkungan dan juga aktivitas manusia. Dalam satu dekade ini, penyebab mayoritas pemutihan karang disebabkan oleh peningkatan suhu permukaan lautnya (Santoso, 2006). Jika hal ini terjadi secara terus menerus, maka akan sangat mungkin terjadi kematian terumbu karang secara masif. Selain itu, kerusakan terumbu karang juga terjadi karena ulah manusia. Nyatanya sampai saat ini masih banyak manusia tidak bertanggung jawab yang membuang sampah anorganik di laut dan membuang limbah kimia langsung menuju laut tanpa diolah. Tidak hanya itu, para  nelayan pun masih ada yang menggunakan bom dan racun berupa kalium sianida untuk menangkap ikan. Hal yang mengejutkan adalah bahwa akhir akhir ini kerusakan terumbu karang juga disebabkan oleh aktivitas snorkelling dan diving yang menyalahi aturan, sehingga menyebabkan terumbu karang banyak yang rusak akibat terinjak injak dan patah akibat kayuhan kaki katak yang tidak benar. Untuk itu, maka aktivitas ini seharusnya hanya dilakukan oleh penyelam yang memiliki lisesnsi diving.

Untuk melindungi kelestarian ekosistem terumbu karang, maka diperlukan strategi pengelolaan, yaitu dengan membuat daerah perlindungan laut, membatasi perikanan di terumbu karang, menjaga pengelolaaan pesisir terpadu, dan melakukan restorasi dan konservasi terumbu karang (Muzari, 2017). Dalam hal ini dibutuhkan kerjasama antara masyarakat dan pemerintah. Diperlukan kesadaran dan partisipasi masyarakat untuk bersama sama menjaga kelestarian terumbu karang. Regulasi, penegakan hukum, kontrol, monitoring dan evaluasi terhadap manajemen pesisir laut juga perlu diperketat.  Sehingga keberlangsungan ekosistem terumbu karang di bawah laut dapat terjaga kelestariannya dan terus memberikan manfaat bagi kita, Indonesia.

-         

REFERENSI

Burke, L., dkk. 2012. Reefs at Risk Revisited in the Coral Triangle. Terjemahan Yayasan Terangi. World Research Institute.

Christy, H. 2014. Aktivitas Snorkelling dan Diving Mengancam Kerusakan Terumbu Karang. www.kompasiana.com/hizkiachristy/aktivitas snorkelling-dan-diving-mengancam-kerusakan-terumbu-karang/. Diakses pada tanggal 16 Februari 2018.

Giyanto, dkk. 2017. Status Terumbu Karang Indonesia 2017. Jakarta: Coremap CTI Pusat Penelitian Oseanografi – LIPI.

Muzari, R.A. 2017. Pemutihan Terumbu Karang. https://pgsp.big.go.id/pemutihan-terumbu-karang/. Diakses pada tanggal 16 Februari 2018.

Santoso A.D. 2006. Pemutihan Terumbu Karang. Jurnal Hidrosfir. 1(2); 61 – 66.

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Analisis Budaya: Perawan Remaja dalam Cengkeraman Militer

Perawan Remaja dalam Cengkeraman Militer

Pramudya  Ananta Toer

A.        Tentang penulis

Pramudya Ananta Toer lahir di Blora pada 6 Februari 1925. Menulis sejak di bangku sekolah dasar, kini beliau telah menghasilkan lebih dari 35 buku, baik fiksi maupun non fiksi. Beberapa karya – karyanya yang terbit pada masa Orde Baru dilarang oleh pemerintah. Ia pernah menjabat sebagai juru ketik di kantor berita Domei (1942 – 1944).  Beberapa penghargaan dari dalam dan luar negeri pernah diraihnya selama menjadi penulis.

B.        Penerbit

Buku ini diterbitkan oleh Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia (KPG) pada tahun 2001 untuk cetakan pertama dan tahun 2002 untuk cetakan kedua.

C.        Karakter, setting, dan bahasa

Penokohan dalam Buku ini menggunakan teknik langsung dan tidak langsung. Ada banyak sekali tokoh yang diceritakan penulis, karena buku ini merupakan kumpulan dari beberapa catatan kesaksian mengenai perawan remaja yang dijadikan budak seks.  Beberapa tokoh utama yang sering diceritakan diantaranya adalah :

1)      Siti F., salah satu wanita korban kebiadaban Jepang yang tinggal di Wai Apu bersama suku pedalaman Alfuru. Ia merupakan wanita cerdas dengan jiwa kepemimpinan tinggi.

2)      Bolansar, wanita buangan di Pulau Buru yang berasal dari Pemalang. Ia memiliki sifat suka menolong dan berbagi serta peduli terhadap orang lain.

3)      Ibu Mulyati dari Klaten. Penderitaan tak tertangguhkan yang diterimanya, telah menjadikan beliau sebagai seorang yang pemberani dan berjiwa kepemimpinan tinggi.

Buku ini memiliki latar waktu, tempat, dan suasana yang beragam. Tahun 1942 – 1945 di Jepang, Pulau Jawa, dan Asia Tenggara.  Tahun 1972 – 1979 di Pulau Buru.  Sebagian besar suasana dalam Buku ini adalah menyedihkan, mengharukan, dan menegangkan. Cerita dalam buku ini memiliki alur campuran. Bahasa yang digunakan penulis dalam buku ini menggunakan bahasa Indonesia yang baku dengan campuran berbagai macam bahasa daerah, seperti Melayu dan Maluku.

D.        Sinopsis

“…. Kalian para perawan remaja, telah aku susun surat ini untuk kalian, bukan saja agar kalian tahu tentang nasib buruk yang biasa menimpa para gadis seumur kalian, juga agar kalian punya perhatian terhadap sejenis kalian yang mengalami kemalangan itu…. Surat kepada kalian ini juga semacam pernyataan protes, sekalipun kejadiannya telah puluhan tahun lewat…”

 –Pramoedya Ananta Toer-

Buku ini dibuat berdasarkan catatan yang dimiliki oleh penulis selama berada di pengasingan, tepatnya di Pulau Buru. Buku ini menceritakan tentang peristiwa dibalik masa penjajahan Jepang. Bagi bangsa Indonesia, hal tersebut merupakan peristiwa sejarah yang sangat penting dimana bangsa Indonesia sedang berada di puncak perjuangan untuk memperoleh kemerdekaan. Namun, dibalik semua peristiwa sejarah yang dituliskan dalam arsip negara, terdapat kejadian yang dapat membuat hati kita bergetar apabila kita mengetahuinya.

Pada tahun 1943, serangan besar – besaran pihak sekutu di Asia Tenggara membuat posisi balatentara Jepang bergeser dari agresif menjadi defensif. Sikapnya terhadap nasionalisme Indonesia juga mulai berubah, sehingga kaum nasionalis di Jawa dan Sumatera mendapatkan keleluasan berpropaganda.

Hubungan laut dan udara balatentara pendudukan Jepang di Asia Tenggara dengan Jepang menjadi sulit. Orang Indonesia, melalui PETA (Pembela Tanah Air), mendapatkan latihan kemiliteran untuk menjadi perwira demi mempertahankan tanah airnya dari serangan Sekutu. Balatentara Jepang sendiri ditarik ke garis terdepan.

Sulitnya hubungan laut dan udara menyebabkan balatentara Jepang tak lagi bisa mendatangkan wanita penghibur dari Jepang, China, dan Korea. Sebagai gantinya, para gadis Indonesia dikirimkan sebagai wanita penghibur.

Balatentara Jepang melakukan propaganda kepada bangsa Indonesia dengan menginformasikan melalui mulut ke mulut. Jepang berjanji akan menyekolahkan banyak gadis Indonesia sebagai upaya untuk persiapan membangun negara Indonesia pasca Indonesia merdeka. Para wanita tersebut nantinya akan difokuskan untuk menguasai satu bidang keahlian, seperti menjadi juru rawat, tenaga pendidik, ahli ekonomi, dan lain lain.

Para pejabat negara seperti kepala desa, ketua RT, dan Kepala Residen, mereka semua diberi propaganda untuk melepas dan mengizinkan putri mereka guna menuntut Ilmu di Jepang. Hal tersebut merupakan sebuah keharusan. Apabila mereka melanggar, Jepang mengancam akan melepas jabatan mereka. Tentu saja putri para pejabat tersebut berbangga hati dengan alasan mereka akan mengejar cita – cita dan menjadi orang yang dapat bermanfaat bagi bangsa Indonesia.
Namun semua itu hanyalah tipu muslihat semata. Kenyataan berkata lain, bukan pendidikan yang mereka dapatkan, namun kekejaman, penganiayaan, dan kesengsaraanlah yang mereka peroleh.  Faktanya, gadis gadis itu tidak pernah sampai ke Jepang. Mereka dijadikan budak seks bagi  balatentara Jepang. Para gadis itu bukanlah gadis biasa. Jepang cukup selektif dalam memilih. Rata rata dari mereka berparas cantik dan pintar, karena mereka merupakan keturunan para priyayi dan mereka telah memperoleh pendidikan SD dan atau SMP.

Awalnya, para gadis tersebut dijemput oleh sekelompok tentara Jepang di rumahnya. Kemudian, mereka dikumpulkan di sebuah tempat. Dibawa dengan kapal ke berbagai wilayah di luar Jawa. Salah satunya  adalah di Pulau Buru, Maluku. Meskipun saat masa pendudukan Jepang telah usai mereka telah dibebaskan, namun tetap saja mereka tak berani pulang ke kampung halamannya yang sebagian besar berada di Pulau Jawa.
Dengan pengalaman kelam yang mengoyak harga dirinya, menjadi alasan mereka tidak berani bertemu keluarga. Banyak diantara gadis-gadis itu yang diperistri oleh orang asli setempat, suku Alfuru. Bahkan diantara dari mereka meninggal sia-sia karena tak bisa bertahan hidup lebih lama.

E.         Opini pribadi

Banyak sekali kajian mengenai feminisme dan adat istiadat masyarakat setempat pada saat itu dan sangat cocok untuk dijadikan sebagai bahan analisis sastra. Buku ini sarat akan makna kehidupan dan perjuangan terutama bagi para perempuan. 

Secara keseluruhan, buku ini sangat bagus dan kaya akan informasi mengenai sejarah yang jarang ditemukan di buku lain dan mengungkap fakta yang selama ini tidak diketahui masyarakat. Buku ini membuka wawasan yang sangat luas bagi para pembacanya. Kita dapat mengetahui dan ikut merasakan bagaimana penderitaan dan keadaan para wanita yang menjadi korban dibalik peristiwa sejarah negeri ini. 

Analisis Subjective

1.       “Dari keterangan seorang teman lain yang pernah bicara dengannya, ternyata Ibu yang setua dan serapuh itu tidak luput dari siksa dan aniaya sampai darahnya berlelehan dari tubuhnya, hanya karena Ia ketahuan telah berbiara dengan bahasa yang tidak dikenal oleh lingkungannya, adatnya, atau berhubungan dengan orang – orang dari negeri seberang. Wanita tidak boleh bicara dalam bahasa apapun kecuali bahasa Buru.”

“Ibu Muka Jawa mengulangi lagi sumpahnya pada Pamali dengan jalan membikin garis silang diatas tanah. Jari – jarinya yang tua kemudian menjumput tanah dari titik silang dua garis lurus itu dan memasukkan ke dalam mulut, memakannya sambil berkata : Dari bumi ini aku lahir. Dari bumi ini aku makan. Aku akan mati dan kembali di bumi ini juga.” (Halaman 97)

Pada paragraf pertama menjelaskan mengenai aturan adat bagi wanita di Pedalaman Buru. Mereka dilarang menggunakan bahasa selain bahasa Buru karena penduduk asli pedalaman Buru khawatir apabila para wanita tersebut akan melarikan diri. Para wanita tersebut dikekang oleh aturan adat setempat yang ketat.  Pada paragraf kedua dijelaskan mengenai tata cara ritual sumpah adat tersebut.

2.       “Itulah sajian untuk Pamali. Para pemuda Nisoni telah membuat sajian itu atas petunjuk kepala adat untuk mengusir penyakit yang menyerang babi – babi piaraan. Batang – Batang pisang yang ditancapi satu – dua ranting adalah lambang ucapan syukur pada Pamali setelah mereka berhasil berburu. Batang pisang diumpamakan binatang buruan dan ranting adalah tombak yang menghukum.” (Halaman 120)

Suku pedalaman Alfuru percaya bahwa dengan memberikan sesaji kepada Pamali (Leluhur yang dipercaya berkuasa di daerah setempat), adalah salah satu cara untuk mengusir penyakit bagi binatang peliharaan mereka. Hal tersebut dilakukan berdasarkan arahan dan petunjuk dari ketua adat.

3.       “Adat kampung tidak membenarkan seorang anak menyebut nama orangtuanya selagi Ia masih bergantung pada mereka.” (Halaman 121)

Bagi masyarakat pedalaman Alfuru, adat istiadat sangat dijunjung dan siapapun yang melanggar pasti akan dihukum. Seorang anak dilarang menyebut nama orang tuanya selagi Ia masih bergantung pada mereka. Hal tersebut dimaksudkan agar seorang anak lebih menghormati dan menghargai usaha orang tua selama membesarkan anak anaknya. Memanggil orang tua dengan sebutan nama merupakan hal yang tabu dan dinilai melanggar etika.

Analisis Objective

1.       “Ia tinggal di sebuah gubuk berdinding gaba – gaba (pelepah daun sagu). Gubuk panggung itu bersambung dengan dapur, yang juga beratap rumbia. Beberapa kali Slr. datang ke situ dan membantu membersihkan kebun pelataran yang ditanami ubi jalar dari rerumputan.”

 (Halaman 56)

Kutipan paragraf diatas menunjukkan ciri ciri fisik rumah salah satu suku di Pulau Buru, yaitu di Kampung Wai Lo.

2.    “Wanita setengah baya itu, mungkin Ibu si gadis kecil, nampak lain daripada wanita Alfuru pada umumnya. Rambutnya dikonde baik – baik. Kebayanya yang telah tua dan jauh dari warna aslinya sudah agak kumal, tapi nampak rapi.” (Halaman 60)

Kutipan paragraf diatas menunjukkan ciri ciri fisik, terutama cara berpakaian wanita jawa pada umumnya, yaitu memakai konde dan kebaya.

3.       “Berdasarkan berita itu, Mokhtar memperkirakan bahwa Kartini adalah istri Raja Gunung itu sendiri.” (Halaman 64)

Yang dimaksud Raja Gunung dalam kalimat tersebut adalah raja yang diakui di pedalaman Pulau Buru. Jadi, di Buru Utara terdapat dua raja, Raja Gunung dan Raja Kayeli. Mereka berasal dari satu marga; Wael. Raja Kayeli adalah penghubung antara suku bangsa Alfuru dengan Pemerintah Hindia – Belanda, kemudian menjadi raja yang diakui beragama Islam.  Kedua raja tersebut tidak memiliki kekuasaan administratif.

4.       “Waktu kecil pamanku sering menyebutkan kata parlente dalam arti berpakaian bagus dan rapi. Dalam kitab lama parlentai berarti petualang, avonturir, mercenary. Tetapi parlente yang kudengar pertama kali di Pedalaman Buru ini ternyata kata umum di Maluku yang berarti dusta, omong kosong, bohong. Jelas berasal dari kelompok bahasa latin (Prancis; parler) dan mungkin sekali pengaruh portugis.”

Dari paragraf diatas, terdapat perbedaan makna bahasa antara orang Jawa dan Maluku. Meskipun pengucapan dan tulisan yang sama, namun memiliki arti yang berbeda. Hal tersebut bisa saja terjadi karena pengaruh bangsa asing pada masyarakat setempat saat itu.   

Analisis Behavior

1.       “Pemerintah Balatentara Pendudukan Dai Nippon sangat takut pada keburukannya sendiri, pada kegagalan – kegagalannya sendiri, daripada berita buruk. Waktu Nippon Eigasa (Kantor Film Jepang), terletak sekitar 150 meter disebelah kanan kantorku, Domei, terbakar, tak sebaris pun berita disiarkan. Sedang kecelakaan itu bukan tidak meminta kurban jiwa manusia. Malah dua orang diantaranya istri dan anak tetanggaku.” (Halaman 7)

Paragraf tersebut menjelaskan bahwa Jepang adalah negara yang takut pada keburukannya sendiri. Hal ini memang telah menjadi budaya dan melekat pada orang Jepang. Mereka merupakan bangsa yang memiiki urat malu yang tinggi apabila mengalami kegagalan. Sebagai contohnya adalah pengunduran diri Menteri Ekonomi  Akira Amari atas tuduhan korupsi. Meskipun telah membantah tuduhan tersebut, Ia juga meminta maaf karena telah mencemari nama baik lembaga pemerintah Jepang.

2.       “Sesuatu yang menarik padanya ialah tingkah lakunya yang tidak sama dengan orang Alfuru, terutama wanitanya. Ia memperlihatkan kepemimpinan, dihormati, dan didengarkan oleh lingkungannya-suatu keluarbiasaan pada wanita Alfuru. Baik lelaki maupun perempuan melakukan perintahnya, termasuk suaminya sendiri. Jalannya diatur selangkah – selangkah, tepat seperti keluarga priyayi atau menak jaman Belanda. Dengan langkah itu pula Ia menerjang ilalang dan memasuki hutan. Sudah dari langkahnya nampak Ia bukan perempuan setempat. Lebih meyakinkan karena pakaiannya selalu rapi , demikin juga rambutnya. Warna rambutnya cukup hitam, tidak pirang seperti umumnya penduduk setempat.” (Halaman 68)

Wanita dalam paragraf tersebut adalah Siti F., Ia adalah orang Sunda, salah satu wanita yang menjadi korban akibat kebiadaban bangsa Jepang. Paragraf tersebut menunjukkan tentang bagaimana perilaku orang Jawa yang merupakan keturunan priyayi. Cara Ibu Siti berjalan menunjukkan bahwa Ia adalah wanita Jawa., selain itu, dari sifat kepemimpinan yang Ia miliki juga menunjukkan bahwa Ia adalah wanita yang pernah mengenyam bangku pendidikan.

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